Gender, Livestock and Household Peasant Production: Dairy and Diversification in Crop-Livestock Systems of an Andean Community

DISCUSSION

Review of Changes in Dairy Production

The dairy enterprise, specifically sales to PIL, is a relatively new additional activity that has been adopted by 40% of the sample in SJL, or 18 families. Only those with improved dairy cattle breeds have participated. The families can be classified according to the number of months they sold milk to PIL: 10 families (56%) sold milk between 9 and 12 months; 4 families (22%) sold milk between six and eight months; and the remaining 4 families (22%) sold milk for four or fewer months of the year. These families can be contrasted with families that do not sell milk to PIL.

It is interesting to note that 31 percent of the sampled households now receive cash from PIL on a regular basis, that is, at least six months of the year. Furthermore, there is a potential for increased participation since 48 percent of the sampled households currently own improved dairy cattle. In terms of adoption, a rate of 30 percent for dairy sales and 48 percent for ownership of improved dairy cattle is a very large adoption rate after only three to four years.

Currently, PIL pays a subsidized price of 1 boliviano per liter of milk. There is some discussion of changing the subsidy program so that the price will fall to 0.80 Bs. These policies will need to be considered carefully since they carry implications for food purchases (security), the enterprise mix (substitution of economic activities), and the division of household labor by gender.

Sources and Uses of Household Income

Sheep, cattle, and crop enterprises are the sources of cash and in-kind income. The composition of household income by enterprise is shown in Table 6. All of the families were involved in crop production, although the level of income generated varies, as shown by the high standard deviation. Sheep is an enterprise carried out by almost 85% of the families. Fewer participate in the cattle enterprise (75%) and the PIL program (42%). Off-farm employment contributes 11% of household income, and 32 families have this as an additional source of income.

Source: Survey information 1993.

Total yearly income is roughly $1,500 (U.S. dollars). The allocation of this income between cash and in-kind sources is detailed in Table 7. Crops are the major source for in-kind income ($681), while cattle are the major source for cash ($300). Crops generate approximately 50% of total income, of which 70% is in-kind income. Sheep production provides 13% of total income, with 60% of this income in the form of cash and 40% in-kind. Cattle generate 16% of total income, of which 93% is cash income. It is also an important form of savings for large capital needs. Milk sales to PIL generate 7% of total income and off-farm employment provides an average 11% of the income.

Source: Survey information 1993.

Table 8 presents the information on income shares stratified by level of sales to PIL. There is a marked difference between the sample average income level and the average income stratified by milk sales to PIL. In general, all categories of households that sold to PIL have an average income that is higher than the overall average. Those that do not sell to PIL have an income that is only 42% of the sample average income. They also have the lowest proportion of average income generated from crops for all of the strata. These families also have the highest proportion of income generated from sheep and from off-farm income. Family life cycle issues are explored in Valdivia and Jetté.

Source: Survey information 1993.

Interestingly, households with the highest sales of milk also have the highest level of absolute and relative income from crops and the lowest off-farm income. In fact, the absolute and relative level of income coming from crops varies directly with level of milk sales, while the proportion of off-farm income varies inversely with milk sales.

Uses: Sheep products are both consumed and sold by the families in SJL. Live animal sales, meat, wool, hides, and manure are products of the sheep enterprise. Milk and cheese were consumed exclusively by the household. Cash was used mainly for household goods, agriculture, and education. Cattle provide milk, cheese, and manure for household consumption and use. Products sold from this enterprise were live animals, milk, cheese and manure. Money from the sales of milk was used for similar types of purchases as money generated by the sheep enterprise, while the money from cattle sales was used for large investments or migration. Crops were basically consumed by the households. Only 20% of the sampled families sold potatoes, and 11% sold quinoa.

All of the case study families Table 1 contains the sales and income composition for the case studies. sold live sheep and at least one other sheep product. Three of the five families sold manure, wool and hides. Manure was collected and sold to an independent buyer. Women usually transported and sold live sheep in the Sunday market at Patacamaya, and used the money to buy household goods such as food and clothing for the family. Wool and hides, when available, were taken by any family member going to Patacamaya for the Sunday market. Decision making relative to the sale of sheep and sheep products was the domain of the FHH. The wives responded that they decided when to sell sheep and sheep products.

All of the case study families sold live cattle at the market and at least three of them sold a cattle product as well. The two products sold were manure and milk. Live cattle were always sold at the Patacamaya market, while milk and manure were sold in SJL. The husband was generally in charge of transportation and sale of live cattle. Uses of this money vary among families. In general it was allocated among farm expenses (seed, fertilizer, land rental), savings to purchase land, or moving expenses for migration.

Two of the case study families sold milk on a regular basis. A third family sold milk for less than two months. Milk sales provide a fast and reliable source of cash. In all three of the families, the husband collected the money, but it is important to point out that this took place outside of a market setting, so there were no immediate opportunities for spending.

Gender-Specific Allocation of Labor by Enterprise

Generalized trends in labor allocation within agricultural enterprises can be seen from the case study information. Table 2 presents the labor allocation for the case studies. From these, men manage the dairy enterprise, women manage the sheep enterprise, and the crop enterprises are jointly managed. Child labor is used in all three, depending on the need for labor at a particular time. There are differences, but the labor allocations between men, women and children, when observed on a daily basis, follow the patterns described below.

In the sheep enterprise, women specialize in herding, milking and selling sheep. The couples share shearing, dipping, collecting manure, and cutting the newborn female tails. Children's labor is allocated by the mother to sheep herding, while the daughters also assist with milking. Data from the survey, when stratified by frequency of sales to PIL, indicate that sheep production is not an enterprise being substituted by dairy production.

Dairy cattle production has the same basic tasks as sheep production, although milking may be more prominent. When the MHH is home, his specific tasks are herding and selling, while the couple's shared tasks are feeding forage and collecting manure. The wife and children are responsible for milking the cows.

The MHH decisions affect the long-term results in the dairy enterprise. Even in cases where the MHH has off-farm employment, the wife replied that it was he who decides when to sell to PIL, what and when to breed, and what type of cow should be bought. By contrast, decisions about when to sell a cow appear to be made jointly. This was also true of the MHH employed in La Paz. The case studies indicate that women in most cases have a say over the daily and seasonal decisions, while men make the long-term decisions that would affect herd characteristics.

The analysis of income diversification showed that the introduction of dairy did not result in a reduction of other enterprises, but a modification in the quality of breeds. Such is the case of improved sheep (Table 9). In all income levels, off-farm income was present, and in absolute terms it was greater in the wealthier groups, those with cattle and milk production (Table 9).

There are differences that are significant between the adopters of improved cattle and dairy cash activities and the rest of the population in San José Llanga (Table 9). The number of adults available at the farm is greater in the adopter group. The reason may be that the other group includes a large group of single heads of households as a result of their old age (Valdivia and Jetté). This also explains why the average age of non-adopters is significantly higher than that of the adopters. Income is higher in this group, as a result of higher income in all economic activities. The data also shows that the composition of criollo and improved sheep favors the latter and is explained by better access to forages as a result of cattle production (Yazman et al, 1995). Education is higher in the better off group. Some indicate that this factor explains the adoption of a cash crop (Illanes, 1994).

On Market Integration

As the study shows, several strategies pursued by the households rely on some form of market integration. It is clear that a group of farmers include dairying as an economic activity, which is supported by government subsidies, both through price supports and marketing facilities. It is also clear that farmers who do not participate in dairying have access to poorer resources but are still engaged in a diversity of economic actitivies that include sheep and cattle, but mainly criollo animals. Most families, regardless of these market linkages, also generate off-farm income through employment other than farming activities. This is achieved through seasonal migration, or through employment in commerce or other services. In terms of the relative importance of income from off-farm employment, this grows as sales of milk to PIL fall. Markets then allow for income generation either through sales of commodities or labor.

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